Beyond Li-ion batteries: performance, materials diversification, and sustainability

Global recognition of the need to diversify energy storage in accordance with sustainability is driving development beyond Li-ion batteries. However, transition toward a truly sustainable industry necessitates informed cradle-to-cradle cost, performance, and environmental assessments together introduction long-term international legislation concerted action from all stakeholders along battery chain. Batteries will play significant role reaching global target carbon neutrality by 2050. batteries (LIBs), current dominant technology, face increasing scrutiny over their dependence on critical materials such as Co graphite, associated socio-environmental impacts. Although LIBs still be necessary for certain applications, future landscape requires greater diversification chemistries that can deliver higher energy, longer lifetimes, faster charging, safety an economical manner. Extensive research has focused alternatives traditional cathode materials: example, Li-S Li-O2; all-solid-state configurations; substitution Li other alkali metals, Na K; multivalent-ion (MVIBs) based Mg, Ca, Al, or Zn1Tian Y. Zeng G. Rutt A. Shi T. Kim H. Wang J. Koettgen Sun Ouyang B. Chen et al.Promises Challenges Next-Generation “Beyond Li-ion” Electric Vehicles Grid Decarbonization.Chem. Rev. 2021; 121: 1623-1669https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00767Crossref Scopus (525) Google Scholar (Figure 1). Progress across these varies: MVIBs Li-O2 are early stage development, whereas most advanced sodium-ion (NIBs) focus several manufacturers; indeed, CATL, Tesla’s primary supplier, intends begin industrializing its technology large scale 2023. mainstream rollout new hindered both challenges specific individual chemistry wider universal factors. Battery ion tend either deploy metallic at anode substitute ions entirely, but approaches challenges. Li-metal anodes could allow access densities order magnitude than LIBs, dendrite growth metal surface lead premature performance fade or, worse, explosive failure. These issues addressed density further improved pairing solid electrolytes (SEs) solid-state (LiSS) batteries.2Fan L. Wei S. Q. Lu Recent Solid-State Electrolytes High-Energy Metal-Based Batteries.Adv. Energy Mater. 2018; 8: 1702657https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201702657Crossref (793) SEs (typically ceramic- polymer-based) struggle provide sufficient ionic conductivity, case ceramic electrolytes, many contain elements Ge, La, Zr, Ti, although newer sulfides have emerged. A LiSS configuration typically employs conventional cathodes, which also dependent elements, avoided alternative pairings Li-O2. low-cost abundant, sulfur cathodes suffer capacity loss uncontrolled shuttling soluble polysulfide intermediates,3Robinson J.B. Xi K. Kumar R.V. Ferrari A.C. Au Titirici M.-M. Parra-Puerto Kucernak Fitch S.D.S. Garcia-Araez N. al.2021 roadmap lithium batteries.J. Phys. Energy. 2021: 031501https://doi.org/10.1088/2515-7655/abdb9aCrossref (75) compromised lack structures constant flow uncontaminated oxygen throughout cycling, suitable catalysts promote nucleation Li2O2 irreversible Li2O formation.4Kwak W.-J. Rosy S.D. Xia C. Johnson L.R. Bruce P.G. Nazar L.F. Y.K. Frimer A.A. al.Lithium-Oxygen Related Systems: Potential, Status, Future.Chem. 2020; 120: 6626-6683https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00609Crossref PubMed (479) Systems more abundant Earth K operate analogously incompatibility particular electrodes necessitated new, higher-capacity materials.1Tian Hard carbons long been choice (up 400 mAh g−1), alloying Sn (847 g−1) Sb (660 offer potentially capacity, effective methods accommodating volume expansion must developed ensure electrode integrity. Cathodes layered oxides, polyanions, Prussian blue analogs enable replacement Ni non-critical redox species Mn Fe, switching Cu Al collectors expected reduce total cell cost. limited larger radius ions, limiting uptake applications where size less critical. Multivalent-ion attractive EVs portable electronics offering volumetric state art charge mobile likely complicate practical application. The ability chevrel, spinel structures5Liang Dong Aurbach D. Yao Current status directions multivalent metal-ion batteries.Nat. 5: 646-656https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-020-0655-0Crossref (579) facilitate fast diffusion explored, discovery able accommodate highly polarizing avoid passivation corrosion, remains challenging. Provided stable under high voltages found, one promising avenue power combination intercalation counterion dual-ion configuration.6Guo Z. Xu Xie F. Feng Strategies High Density Dual-Ion Using Carbon-Based Cathodes.Adv. Sustainability Res. 2: 2100074https://doi.org/10.1002/aesr.202100074Crossref (11) For it possible employ same processes only slight modifications. Indeed, some steps might simplified: employing precludes dispersing, coating, calendering electrodes. Conversely, moisture sensitivity sodium stringent manufacturing conditions, alongside withstand aqueous processing. few economic exist technologies (mostly NIBs) indicate cost reductions because costs assumed similar.7Schneider S.F. Bauer Novák P. Berg E.J. modeling framework assess impacts Na-ion batteries.Sustain. Fuels. 2019; 3: 3061-3070https://doi.org/10.1039/C9SE00427KCrossref alleviates pressure material demands, inevitably introduces ones; cathode, they continue rely anode. Furthermore, problem facing production greenhouse gas footprint addressed, comprehensive evaluation complicated insufficient data harmonization life cycle assessment (LCA) methods. Lastly, we large-scale waste disposal first-generation reach end life. Efforts growing develop recycling methods, variations difficulty separating packs into constituent components practices. recover high-value Co, thus resource inefficient economically unfavorable. At present, no single emerging match every point, innovations think consider how reconcile technological advances implications each step value chain 2). governed additional factors capacities cathode/anode. Electrode structure, electrolyte binder properties, any within role. Typically, rather adopting whole-cell perspective, scope academic may aspect chemistry. Developing centralized open-access high-throughput combinatorial testing facility convergence discoveries community easily efficiently discover viable configurations. application machine learning datasets generated this automated process, areas including photocatalysis photovoltaics, accelerate determining optimized combinations subsequent synthesis testing. As outlined EU Big-Map 2030+ project,8BIG-MAP Interface Genome - Materials Acceleration Platform. https://www.big-map.eu/Google approach key bringing outcomes breadth overcome main challenge learning: insufficiency consistent reliable data. In parallel innovation, design characterization techniques pursued operando cells undergoing cycling better study chemical morphological phenomena occurring interfaces. multifunctionality help address lifetime; introducing self-healing formulations respond mechanical stimuli preserve structural integrity electrode, preventing degradation failure.9Battery 2030+Inventing future.https://battery2030.eu/research/roadmap/Date: 2020Google Meanwhile, implementing situ non-destructive health diagnostics users understand battery’s lifespan safer efficient use conditions. pack scale, optimal conditions extract optimum performance-lifetime balance. Innovations modular designs should prioritized disassembly spent batteries, compression adhesives dismantling (e.g., Aceleron Energy, UK). become routine. Implementing measures full traceability composition accountability require compliance manufacturers policymakers. Design biodegradability paramount, consideration engineered surfaces easy component disassembly, while water-soluble binders separation. Where pyrometallurgical cannot avoided, less-energy-intense treatments pursued, low-temperature smelting, Umicore. Integrating degree automation result efficiency, significantly simplified standardization. Comprehensive analyses beyond-Li scant, due end-of-life study. Nonetheless, LIB matures, anticipated extrapolated NIBs, share LIBs. criticality important technologies, holistic practices tailored outset, considered retrospectively. Whether one-size-fits-all whether tune seen, certainly added establishing flexibility initial financial incentive encourage widespread adoption. raw materials, Li, Ni, Mn, raises batteries.10Wentker M. Greenwood Asaba M.C. Leker impact state-of-the-art post-lithium-ion technologies.J. Storage. 26: 101022https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2019.101022Crossref (33) Mining strategic metals inseparable pollution social/ethical issues. Alternative globally evenly distributed K, financial, environmental, social burdens. replacements heavily secondary resources, and, thus, exploitative energy-intensive extraction developed. Securing local supply would enhance resilience supporting populations. mature, recovery recycled security close loop circular economy. New positive changes practice. Carbon found active conductive additive; petrochemical biomass precursors alleviate fossil dependence. biomass-derived binders, carboxymethyl cellulose, lowering pyrolysis temperatures energetic production. circumvented, clean electricity sources prioritized. Synthesis processing harmful solvents minimized, aim if unavoidable. proposes unified passport11European ParliamentNew Regulatory Framework Setting Requirements.https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document/EPRS_BRI(2021)689337Date: 2021Google containing information chemistry, origin, first application, after life, custody. Third-party valuation platforms assist exchange used Clear transparent labeling stages clarify extended responsibilities producers: liability transferred when refurbished second-life success coming law passport initiative11European establish cooperation stakeholders, manufacturers, investors, policymakers, regulatory bodies, well transparency Open-access LCA tools evaluation. near term, our proposed perhaps unfavorable policy agreement encouragement. removal fuel subsidies instruments incentivize adoption renewable products beneficial. Stronger regulations incentives benefit batteries; harvesting intensity 34 Mt create ∼$35 billion.12World Economic ForumA Vision Sustainable Value Chain 2030: Unlocking Full Potential Power Development Climate Change Mitigation.https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_A_Vision_for_a_Sustainable_Battery_Value_Chain_in_2030_Report.pdfDate: 2019Google Recycling steady source alleviating virgin extraction, recovered use. economics favorable price so until economies reached, lower-value employed chemistries. strong precedent regard 100% lead-acid despite far lower comparison LIBs.13Niese Pieper Arora Case Circular Economy Vehicle Batteries.https://www.bcg.com/publications/2020/case-for-circular-economy-in-electric-vehicle-batteriesDate: aluminium’s established infrastructure allows 35% demand supplied through Al,14Leisegang Meutzner Zschornak Münchgesang W. Schmid R. Nestler Eremin R.A. Kabanov Blatov V.A. Meyer D.C. Aluminum-Ion Battery: Seminal Concept?.Front Chem. 7: 268https://doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2019.00268Crossref (131) abundance. force economics, expense sustainability. inclusive vision required full-spectrum fosters economy; decrease social, recommended here residual fully extracted. Harvesting necessitate workforces therefore job opportunities. time, shift come naturally market grows, recyclable enables profitable, time not side, enacting reliefs now crucial changes. H.A. M.-M.T. thank Faraday Institution's LiSTAR project (EP/S003053, grant FIRG014). M.C.R. EPSRC EP/S018204/2. thanks RAEng Chair Emerging Technologies Fellowship CiET1819\2\60. associate editor J Mater Chem RSC editorial board journals IOP, Wiley, Elsevier.